Project

Four research goals were achieved in the project. First, by combining the emic and etic approaches in measuring maternal parenting, we revealed maternal parenting behaviors related to attachment security and insecurity of their middle-aged children in the Netherlands, Poland, and Turkey. Secondly, we revealed mediators of the intergenerational transmission of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance between mothers and children. Third, we demonstrated the moderation effects of culture (measured as mother’s nationality) on the relationship between maternal parenting and child attachment. Fourth, based on the results on descriptive norms of parenting and other results of our analyses we initially described culturally-specific parenting models in Poland, Turkey and the Netherlands. Addressing the limitations of previous studies, we examined the quality of children’s attachment in terms of their attachment security (treating the mother as a safe haven and secure base) and attachment insecurity (attachment avoidance and anxiety). In parenting assessment, we combined various theoretical parenting perspectives and the etic and emic approaches.

The research procedure and research samples in which we collected data were multidimensional. First, based on interviews (n = 30 in each country) and focus group discussions preceding (n = 12 in each country) and ending (n = 6 in each country) the interviews with mothers of middle aged children, we developed emic scales that included parenting behaviors of mothers, both, specific to each of the studied cultures as well as used by all mothers. These parenting behaviors were discussed by interviewed mothers as related to the situations indicated by the researchers as activating the attachment behavioral system in children. Then, combining emic and etic scales to measure maternal parenting and child attachment, we examined 250 mother-child dyads in each country in the main CEE-PaAtt Study. In a separate Parenting Descriptive Norms Study, we collected data on descriptive norms of parenting (selected emic and etic scales used in the CEE-PaAtt Study) in each country by surveying a group of fathers and a group of mothers different than those in the CEE-PaAtt study (n = 200 in each country). They were asked about parenting behaviors from three perspectives and the extent to which: (1) they use the indicated parenting behaviors, (2) they experienced them from their own parents in middle childhood, and (3) these behaviors are typical or normative in their own country.

Current results of our analyzes allow for the formulation of several important, but preliminary conclusions. First, we empirically characterized the culturally-specific models of parenting differing in the intensity of parenting. These models differed in terms of the quality of maternal parenting patterns. The Turkish model was found as the most emotionally intense, based on psychological control use and pressure on children’s achievements. The Dutch model of parenting was found as emotionally involved (relatively less intense), knowledge-guided parenting, and based on the lack of acceptance for the use of psychological control in children and low pressure on children’s achievements. The Polish model of mothers parenting was revealed as based on emotional involvement (also less intense than in the Turkish model), supporting the child’s independence, psychological control use and pressure on children’s achievements. Second, we defined and presented emic measurement scales of two emic parenting dimensions revealed as important in the qualitative study: parenting positivity and negativity and distanced parenting. We have shown that they are significantly related to attachment of children. The construct of distanced parenting corresponds to intensive parenting on an individual level, and sets the opposite dimension of intensive parenting. The moderation analyzes showed qualitative differences in the understanding of distanced parenting in the three countries. In addition, by addressing the gap in the measurement of attachment and referring to its essence according to Bowlby, we created emic scales based on vignettes describing five ecologically relevant situations in Poland, the Netherlands and Turkey related to the activation of the attachment behavioral system in children. The analysis of the results revealed the culturally-specific and culturally shared parenting behaviors of mothers, which indicate their parenting sensitivity, lack thereof or maternal intrusiveness. Third, the results of our studies fill a gap in the existing research to some extent, revealing: (1) dimensions of maternal parenting related to attachment anxiety of children in middle childhood; (2) different parental correlates of children’s attachment security, attachment avoidance, and attachment anxiety; (3) moderation effects of culture on the relationship between maternal parenting and attachment of children; (4) the mechanism of the intergenerational transmission of attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety based on the prementalization of mothers and their distanced parenting; (5) the relationship of prementalization with psychological control, reflective functioning and parenting negativity.

The patterns of moderation effects found in our studies only partially support the culture fit hypothesis (Friedmann et al., 2010) and provide the first preliminary evidence of a fit between developmentally beneficial (versus already studied developmentally unfavorable) relational behaviors and culture in their relations to child attachment, calling for a discussion on strategies related to formulation of hypotheses in cross-cultural development psychology.

Summary of the project in the form of a mind map: